Encouraging Reflection and Critical Friendship in Preservice Teacher Education
Keywords:
action research, critical friendship, critical reflection, reflection in teacher education, reflection through online discussion
Abstract
Reflectivity is an important professional competence of contemporary teachers. In order to explore how to encourage students’ reflection, we conducted a two-year action research project impelling them to become mutual critical friends. For critical friendship communication and other project activities, we utilised Moodle – an online learning management system. On the basis of the analysed data that were gathered at the end of each action research cycle, we determined that the students felt comfortable in the role of critical friends and that critical friends’ reflections were particularly pleasant for them. They experienced the comments of their critical friends as friendly, encouraging, useful, specific, interesting, detailed, positive, professional and clear. The majority of students (91%) think that the critical friendship discussion should be continued within the course Correlated-integrated systems in Croatian language teaching, and 85% of them suggest introducing this approach in other teachers’ education courses. We determined that the technical mode of reflective thinking prevails in the students’ correspondence. The practical or contextual level could rarely be observed while critical reflection was completely absent in 11 of 14 discussions. Reflective thinking of students (future teachers) should be fostered from the beginning of their studies within various courses, particularly in the pedagogical and methodological ones. To encourage their students to be critically reflective, university teachers should embrace reflective thinking by becoming critically-reflective practitioners and conducting action research in their teaching practices.
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References
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Bognar, B., & Mompoint-Gaillard, P. (2017). Creating an online community of action researchers. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing.
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Bognar, L., & Matijević, M. (2002). Didaktika [Didactics]. Zagreb: Školska knjiga.
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Brookfield, S. D. (2005). The power of critical theory for adult learning and teaching. New York: Open University Press.
Brookfield, S. D. (2006). The skillful teacher: On technique, trust, and responsiveness in the classroom. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Brookfield, S. D. (2010). Critical reflection as an adult learning process. In N. Lyons (Ed.), Handbook of reflection and reflective inquiry (pp. 215–236). New York: Springer.
Carr, W., & Kemmis, S. (1986). Becoming critical: Education, knowledge and action research. London: Routledge/Falmer.
Chambers, P., Colombo, M., Askland, L., & Clarke, B. (2003). Significant learning incidents and critical conversations in an international context: Promoting reflexivity with in-service students. Journal of In-Service Education, 29(1), 101–122. doi:10.1080/13674580300200199
Cho, K., & Schunn, C. D. (2003). Seven cognitiv factors that make learning successful in networked collaboration. In R. Alterman, & D. Kirsch (Eds.), Proceedings of the 25th Annual Cognitive Science Society: Part 1 and 2 (pp. 246–251). New York: Psychology Press.
Choy, S. C., & Oo, P. S. (2012). Reflective thinking and teaching practices: A precursor for incorporating critical thinking into the classroom? International Journal of Instruction, 5(1), 167–182.
Cochran-Smith, M., & Lytle, S. L. (2009). Inquiry as stance. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
Coimbra, M. N., Martins, A. O., Pinto, I. P., & Duarte, R. S. (2014). Practical reflectivity as a context for teachers’ professional development: A mixed-methods study. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 1(8), 176–187. doi:10.14738/assrj.18.746
Costa, A., & Kallick, B. (1993). Through the lens of a critical friend. Educational leadership, 51(2), 49–51.
Craig, C. J. (2009). Learning about reflection through exploring narrative inquiry. Reflective Practice, 10(1), 105–116. doi:10.1080/14623940802652920
Dewey, J. (1910). How we think. Boston: D. C. Heath.
Dougiamas, M., & Taylor, P. C. (2003). Moodle: Using learning communities to create an open source course management system. World Conference on Educational Multimedia, Hypermedia and Telecommunications (EDMEDIA) 2003. Chesapeake, VA, USA.
Ennis, R. H. (1993). Critical thinking assessment. Theory into practice, 32(3), 179–186.
Fook, J. (2015). Reflective practice and critical reflection. In J. Lishman (Ed.), Handbook for practice learning in social work and social care (pp. 440–454). London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
Fook, J., & Askeland, G. A. (2006). The ‘critical’ in critical reflection. In S. White, J. Fook, & F. Gardner (Eds.), Critical reflection in health and social care (pp. 40–53). New York, NY: Open University Press.
Fook, J., & Askeland, G. A. (2007). Challenges of critical reflection: ‘Nothing ventured, nothing gained’. Social Work Education, 26(5), 520–533. doi:10.1080/02615470601118662
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Gay, G., & Kirkland, K. (2003). Developing cultural critical consciousness and self-reflection in preservice teacher education. Theory into practice, 42(3), 181–187.
doi:10.1207/s15430421tip4203_3
Griffin, M. L. (2003). Using critical incidents to promote and assess reflective thinking in preservice teachers. Reflective Practice, 4(2), 207–220. doi:10.1080/14623940308274
Habermas, J. (1971). Knowledge and human interests. (J. J. Shapiro, Trans.) Boston: Beacon Press.
Habermas, J. (1974). Theory and practice. Boston, MA: Beacon Press.
Han, E. P. (1995). Reflection is essential in teacher education. Childhood Education, 71(4), 228–231. doi:10.1080/00094056.1995.10522606
Haralambos, M., & Holborn, M. (2002). Sociologija: Teme i perspektive [Sociology: Themes and perspectives]. Zagreb: Golden marketing.
Harrington, H. L., & Hathaway, R. S. (1994). Computer conferencing, critical reflection, and teacher development. Teaching & Teacher Education, 10(5), 543–554.
Hattie, J. (2015). What works best in education: The politics of collaborative expertise. London: Pearson.
Hernandez, F., & Endo, R. (2017). Developing and supporting critically reflective teachers. In F. Hernandez, & R. Endo (Eds.), Developing and supporting critically reflective teachers (pp. 1–16). Rotterdam: Sense Publishers.
Horkheimer, M. (1989). Critical theory: Selected essays. New York, NY: Continuum.
Ingvarson, L., Meiers, M., & Beavis, A. (2005). Factors affecting the impact of professional development programs on teachers’ knowledge, practice, student outcomes & efficacy. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 13(10), 1–28. doi:10.14507/epaa.v13n10.2005
Kemmis, S., McTaggart, R., & Nixon, R. (2014). The action research planner: Doing critical participatory action research. London, UK: Springer.
Kincheloe, J. (1995). Meet me behind the curtain: The struggle for a critical postmodern action research. In P. L. McLaren, & J. Giarelli (Eds.), Critical theory and educational research (pp. 71–89). New York: State University of New York.
Lewis, L. (2015). A critical reflection on eportfolio as a teaching tool. New Zealand Journal of Teachers’ Work, 12(2), 115–130.
Liu, K. (2013). Critical reflection as a framework for transformative learning in teacher education. Educational Review, 67(2), 135–157. doi:10.1080/00131911.2013.839546
MacKnight, C. B. (2000). Teaching critical thinking through online discussions. Educase Qarterly, 23(4), 38–41. Retrieved from http://er.educause.edu/~/media/files/article-downloads/eqm0048.pdf
McNiff, J., & Whitehead, J. (2002). Action research: Principles and practice. London, UK: Routledge/Falmer.
McNiff, J., & Whitehead, J. (2010). You and your action research project. (3rd ed.). London: Routledge.
Mezirow, J. (2000). Learning to think like an adult: Core concepts of transformation theory. In J. Mezirow, & Associates (Eds.), Learning as transformation (pp. 3–33). San Fancisco, CA: Josey-Bass. Nadin, S., & Cassell, C. (2006). The use of a research diary as a tool for reflexive practice: Some reflections from management research. Qualitative Research in Accounting & Management, 3(3), 208–217. doi:10.1108/11766090610705407
Peko, A., Mlinarević, V., & BuljubaÅ¡ić-Kuzmanović, V. (2008). Potreba unaprjeÄ‘ivanja sveuÄiliÅ¡ne nastave [The need for improvement of instruction at university level]. Odgojne znanosti, 10(1), 195–208. Retrieved from http://hrcak.srce.hr/28685
Phan, H. P. (2010). Critical thinking as a self-regulatory process component in teaching and learning. Psicothema, 22(2), 284–292.
Porntaweekul, S., Raksasataya, S., & Nethanomsak, T. (2015). Development of the reflective thinking instructional model for student teachers. International Forum of Teaching and Studies, 11(1-2), 24–32.
Prensky, M. (2001). Digital natives, digital immigrants. On the Horizon, 9(5), 2–6. doi:10.1108/10748120110424816
Rosandić, D. (2005). Metodika književnog odgoja: Temeljci metodiÄkoknjiževne enciklopedije [Literature education methodology: Encyclopedia of literature and methodology fundamentals]. Zagreb: Å kolska knjiga.
Scales, P., Briddon, K., & Senior, L. (2013). Teaching in the lifelong learning sector. Maidenhead: Open University Press.
Schein, E. H. (2010). Organizational culture and leadership. (4th ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Schön, D. A. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. New York: Basic Books.
Schön, D. A. (1987). Educating the reflective practitioner. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Shandomo, H. M. (2010). The role of critical reflection in teacher education. School–University Partnerships, 4(1), 101–113. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ915885.pdf
Smith, E. (2010). Teaching critical reflection. Teaching in Higher Education, 16(2), 211–223. doi:10.1080/13562517.2010.515022
Stoll, L. (1998). School culture. School Improvement Network’s Bulletin, 9, 9–14.
Taggart, G. L., & Wilson, A. P. (2005). Promoting reflective thinking in teachers: 50 action strategies. (2. ed.). Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press.
Težak, S. (1996). Teorija i praksa nastave hrvatskog jezika 1 [Theory and practice of Croatian language teaching 1]. Zagreb: Školska knjiga.
Tsang, A. K. (2011). Online reflective group discussion – connecting first year undergraduate students with their third year peers. Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 11(3), 58–74. Retrieved from https://josotl.indiana.edu/article/view/1828/1825
van Manen, M. (1977). Linking ways of knowing with ways of being practical. Curriculum Inquiry, 6(3), 205–228.
van Manen, M. (1995). On the epistemology of reflective practice. Teachers and Teaching: theory and practice, 1(1), 33–50.
Vidović, S., & Kuharić BuÄević, V. (2013). The enhancement of creativity in Technical Education. Educational Journal of Living Theories, 6(1), 57–85. Retrieved from http://ejolts.net/node/204
Vince, R., & Reynolds, M. (2009). Reflection, reflective practice and organizing reflection. In S. J. Armstrong, & C. V. Fukami (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of management learning, education and development (pp. 89–103). Los Angeles: SAGE.
Whipp, J. L. (2003). Scaffolding critical reflection in online discussions: Helping prospective teachers think deeply about field experiences in urban schools. Journal of Teacher Education, 54(4), 321–333.
Wood, L., Seobi, A., Setlhare-Meltor, R., & Waddington, R. (2015). Reflecting on reflecting: Fostering student capacity for critical reflection in an action research project. Educational Research for Social Change, 4(1), 79–93.
World Economic Forum (2015). New vision for education: Unlocking the potential of technology. Geneva, Switzerland. Retrieved from http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEFUSA_NewVisionforEducation_Report2015.pdf
Bognar, B., & Mompoint-Gaillard, P. (2017). Creating an online community of action researchers. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing.
Bognar, B., Gajger, V., & Ivić, V. (2016). Constructivist e-learning in higher education. Croatian Journal of Education, 18(Sp. Ed. No. 1), 31–46.
Bognar, L., & Matijević, M. (2002). Didaktika [Didactics]. Zagreb: Školska knjiga.
Bold, C., & Hutton, P. (2007). Supporting students’ critical reflection-on-practice. In A. Campbell, & L. Norton (Eds.), Learning, teaching and assessing in higher education: Developing reflective practice (pp. 21–30). Exeter, UK: Learning Matters.
Boud, D. (2001). Using journal writing to enhance reflective practice. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 90, 9–18. doi:10.1002/ace.16
Bowles, S., & Ginits, H. (2007). Broken promises: School reform in retrospect. In A. R. Sadovnik (Ed.), Sociology of education: A critical reader (pp. 53–69). New York: Routledge.
Brookfield, S. D. (1995). Becoming a critically reflective teacher. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Brookfield, S. D. (2005). The power of critical theory for adult learning and teaching. New York: Open University Press.
Brookfield, S. D. (2006). The skillful teacher: On technique, trust, and responsiveness in the classroom. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Brookfield, S. D. (2010). Critical reflection as an adult learning process. In N. Lyons (Ed.), Handbook of reflection and reflective inquiry (pp. 215–236). New York: Springer.
Carr, W., & Kemmis, S. (1986). Becoming critical: Education, knowledge and action research. London: Routledge/Falmer.
Chambers, P., Colombo, M., Askland, L., & Clarke, B. (2003). Significant learning incidents and critical conversations in an international context: Promoting reflexivity with in-service students. Journal of In-Service Education, 29(1), 101–122. doi:10.1080/13674580300200199
Cho, K., & Schunn, C. D. (2003). Seven cognitiv factors that make learning successful in networked collaboration. In R. Alterman, & D. Kirsch (Eds.), Proceedings of the 25th Annual Cognitive Science Society: Part 1 and 2 (pp. 246–251). New York: Psychology Press.
Choy, S. C., & Oo, P. S. (2012). Reflective thinking and teaching practices: A precursor for incorporating critical thinking into the classroom? International Journal of Instruction, 5(1), 167–182.
Cochran-Smith, M., & Lytle, S. L. (2009). Inquiry as stance. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
Coimbra, M. N., Martins, A. O., Pinto, I. P., & Duarte, R. S. (2014). Practical reflectivity as a context for teachers’ professional development: A mixed-methods study. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 1(8), 176–187. doi:10.14738/assrj.18.746
Costa, A., & Kallick, B. (1993). Through the lens of a critical friend. Educational leadership, 51(2), 49–51.
Craig, C. J. (2009). Learning about reflection through exploring narrative inquiry. Reflective Practice, 10(1), 105–116. doi:10.1080/14623940802652920
Dewey, J. (1910). How we think. Boston: D. C. Heath.
Dougiamas, M., & Taylor, P. C. (2003). Moodle: Using learning communities to create an open source course management system. World Conference on Educational Multimedia, Hypermedia and Telecommunications (EDMEDIA) 2003. Chesapeake, VA, USA.
Ennis, R. H. (1993). Critical thinking assessment. Theory into practice, 32(3), 179–186.
Fook, J. (2015). Reflective practice and critical reflection. In J. Lishman (Ed.), Handbook for practice learning in social work and social care (pp. 440–454). London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
Fook, J., & Askeland, G. A. (2006). The ‘critical’ in critical reflection. In S. White, J. Fook, & F. Gardner (Eds.), Critical reflection in health and social care (pp. 40–53). New York, NY: Open University Press.
Fook, J., & Askeland, G. A. (2007). Challenges of critical reflection: ‘Nothing ventured, nothing gained’. Social Work Education, 26(5), 520–533. doi:10.1080/02615470601118662
Fook, J., & Gardner, F. (2006). Critical reflection: A review of contemporary literature and understandings. In S. White, J. Fook, & F. Gardner (Eds.), Critical reflection in health and social care (pp. 3–20). Maidenhead: Open University Press.
Gay, G., & Kirkland, K. (2003). Developing cultural critical consciousness and self-reflection in preservice teacher education. Theory into practice, 42(3), 181–187.
doi:10.1207/s15430421tip4203_3
Griffin, M. L. (2003). Using critical incidents to promote and assess reflective thinking in preservice teachers. Reflective Practice, 4(2), 207–220. doi:10.1080/14623940308274
Habermas, J. (1971). Knowledge and human interests. (J. J. Shapiro, Trans.) Boston: Beacon Press.
Habermas, J. (1974). Theory and practice. Boston, MA: Beacon Press.
Han, E. P. (1995). Reflection is essential in teacher education. Childhood Education, 71(4), 228–231. doi:10.1080/00094056.1995.10522606
Haralambos, M., & Holborn, M. (2002). Sociologija: Teme i perspektive [Sociology: Themes and perspectives]. Zagreb: Golden marketing.
Harrington, H. L., & Hathaway, R. S. (1994). Computer conferencing, critical reflection, and teacher development. Teaching & Teacher Education, 10(5), 543–554.
Hattie, J. (2015). What works best in education: The politics of collaborative expertise. London: Pearson.
Hernandez, F., & Endo, R. (2017). Developing and supporting critically reflective teachers. In F. Hernandez, & R. Endo (Eds.), Developing and supporting critically reflective teachers (pp. 1–16). Rotterdam: Sense Publishers.
Horkheimer, M. (1989). Critical theory: Selected essays. New York, NY: Continuum.
Ingvarson, L., Meiers, M., & Beavis, A. (2005). Factors affecting the impact of professional development programs on teachers’ knowledge, practice, student outcomes & efficacy. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 13(10), 1–28. doi:10.14507/epaa.v13n10.2005
Kemmis, S., McTaggart, R., & Nixon, R. (2014). The action research planner: Doing critical participatory action research. London, UK: Springer.
Kincheloe, J. (1995). Meet me behind the curtain: The struggle for a critical postmodern action research. In P. L. McLaren, & J. Giarelli (Eds.), Critical theory and educational research (pp. 71–89). New York: State University of New York.
Lewis, L. (2015). A critical reflection on eportfolio as a teaching tool. New Zealand Journal of Teachers’ Work, 12(2), 115–130.
Liu, K. (2013). Critical reflection as a framework for transformative learning in teacher education. Educational Review, 67(2), 135–157. doi:10.1080/00131911.2013.839546
MacKnight, C. B. (2000). Teaching critical thinking through online discussions. Educase Qarterly, 23(4), 38–41. Retrieved from http://er.educause.edu/~/media/files/article-downloads/eqm0048.pdf
McNiff, J., & Whitehead, J. (2002). Action research: Principles and practice. London, UK: Routledge/Falmer.
McNiff, J., & Whitehead, J. (2010). You and your action research project. (3rd ed.). London: Routledge.
Mezirow, J. (2000). Learning to think like an adult: Core concepts of transformation theory. In J. Mezirow, & Associates (Eds.), Learning as transformation (pp. 3–33). San Fancisco, CA: Josey-Bass. Nadin, S., & Cassell, C. (2006). The use of a research diary as a tool for reflexive practice: Some reflections from management research. Qualitative Research in Accounting & Management, 3(3), 208–217. doi:10.1108/11766090610705407
Peko, A., Mlinarević, V., & BuljubaÅ¡ić-Kuzmanović, V. (2008). Potreba unaprjeÄ‘ivanja sveuÄiliÅ¡ne nastave [The need for improvement of instruction at university level]. Odgojne znanosti, 10(1), 195–208. Retrieved from http://hrcak.srce.hr/28685
Phan, H. P. (2010). Critical thinking as a self-regulatory process component in teaching and learning. Psicothema, 22(2), 284–292.
Porntaweekul, S., Raksasataya, S., & Nethanomsak, T. (2015). Development of the reflective thinking instructional model for student teachers. International Forum of Teaching and Studies, 11(1-2), 24–32.
Prensky, M. (2001). Digital natives, digital immigrants. On the Horizon, 9(5), 2–6. doi:10.1108/10748120110424816
Rosandić, D. (2005). Metodika književnog odgoja: Temeljci metodiÄkoknjiževne enciklopedije [Literature education methodology: Encyclopedia of literature and methodology fundamentals]. Zagreb: Å kolska knjiga.
Scales, P., Briddon, K., & Senior, L. (2013). Teaching in the lifelong learning sector. Maidenhead: Open University Press.
Schein, E. H. (2010). Organizational culture and leadership. (4th ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Schön, D. A. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. New York: Basic Books.
Schön, D. A. (1987). Educating the reflective practitioner. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Shandomo, H. M. (2010). The role of critical reflection in teacher education. School–University Partnerships, 4(1), 101–113. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ915885.pdf
Smith, E. (2010). Teaching critical reflection. Teaching in Higher Education, 16(2), 211–223. doi:10.1080/13562517.2010.515022
Stoll, L. (1998). School culture. School Improvement Network’s Bulletin, 9, 9–14.
Taggart, G. L., & Wilson, A. P. (2005). Promoting reflective thinking in teachers: 50 action strategies. (2. ed.). Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press.
Težak, S. (1996). Teorija i praksa nastave hrvatskog jezika 1 [Theory and practice of Croatian language teaching 1]. Zagreb: Školska knjiga.
Tsang, A. K. (2011). Online reflective group discussion – connecting first year undergraduate students with their third year peers. Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 11(3), 58–74. Retrieved from https://josotl.indiana.edu/article/view/1828/1825
van Manen, M. (1977). Linking ways of knowing with ways of being practical. Curriculum Inquiry, 6(3), 205–228.
van Manen, M. (1995). On the epistemology of reflective practice. Teachers and Teaching: theory and practice, 1(1), 33–50.
Vidović, S., & Kuharić BuÄević, V. (2013). The enhancement of creativity in Technical Education. Educational Journal of Living Theories, 6(1), 57–85. Retrieved from http://ejolts.net/node/204
Vince, R., & Reynolds, M. (2009). Reflection, reflective practice and organizing reflection. In S. J. Armstrong, & C. V. Fukami (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of management learning, education and development (pp. 89–103). Los Angeles: SAGE.
Whipp, J. L. (2003). Scaffolding critical reflection in online discussions: Helping prospective teachers think deeply about field experiences in urban schools. Journal of Teacher Education, 54(4), 321–333.
Wood, L., Seobi, A., Setlhare-Meltor, R., & Waddington, R. (2015). Reflecting on reflecting: Fostering student capacity for critical reflection in an action research project. Educational Research for Social Change, 4(1), 79–93.
World Economic Forum (2015). New vision for education: Unlocking the potential of technology. Geneva, Switzerland. Retrieved from http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEFUSA_NewVisionforEducation_Report2015.pdf
Published
2017-09-25
How to Cite
Bognar, B., & Krumes, I. (2017). Encouraging Reflection and Critical Friendship in Preservice Teacher Education. Center for Educational Policy Studies Journal, 7(3), 87-112. https://doi.org/10.26529/cepsj.289
Section
FOCUS
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